How femininities and masculinities were constructed in Latin America Essay Example for Free

How femininities and masculinities were constructed in Latin America Essay The upsurge of the American culture has vehemently exploded across the world in general, but in particular in the Latin America, where the conventional living styles have been upset. From the Caracas to Havana, feminism and masculinity have been snared. Socially, a new social fabric is in the memory where gender polarity is being erased to pave way for a neoman who neither recognizes nor respects individual external orientations. Though in numerous cases education system in different courses have recognized the fauna and flora into two distinct groups based on anatomical feature; a good proportion of the modern people have failed to respect this early natural innovation. As far as human studies reveals, the aftermath of long researches with devotion and dedications from global scientists has to be alluded for verification and confirmatory of the kind evolutions that might have taken place. Perhaps, it can be claimed that biologists, psychologists and other individuals in the anthropological research and studies have over the time been disillusioned on their work. (Viveros, 2001) The two terminologies of masculinity and femininity have been widely used in the research involving human being. They have been used primarily in researches in the field of science of biology, sociology and medicine. Despite their wide application in the scientific world, these terms have been used to bring a sense of gender category/ identity. Both masculinity and femininity are two opposite terms which etymologically were derived from the word male and female respectively. In spite of their derivation, masculinity and maleness are widely distinct entities, hence they have meaning which are quite unrelated. Similarly, femininity and femaleness has different application to bring different meanings. Advances in education and technology in defense of new world, masculinity and femininity meanings have been diffused, and this has led to flooding of different characteristics to define them, thus impressive characteristics such as communion and separations by Balkan are widely adopted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  (Stern, 2001) Overall, distinguishing of such terminologies has over the decades been confusing, throwing most readers out of the track. Sex and gender are the most perplexing words especially in relation to masculinity and femininity.   However, the recent simplicity of these indicates the body as being the sex while gender is the complexities which are portrayed by the body. This sophistication thus comprises of the body behavior, the mental thinking and the general features which describes the personality of an individual (Gutmann, 1970). Therefore, masculinity and femininity are highly rooted on the gender term rather than sex. Masculinities and femininities are gendered terms which refers to behavioral characteristics that are distinctive and general pronounced in give sex.   The study of females and males in gender revealed context is something that has not taken place in an overnight elapse; however, this is estimated to have been in existence for more than a century. Approximately, femininity and masculinity studies have lasted from late 19th century and early 20th century up to date. First and foremost, men’s interest on the study of gender work was more inclined in the field of social activities. The arousal of gender related interest was emanating from the many numerous mistreatments that were inflicted on the females by the male counterparts. Since the first inscriptive work concerning gender issues, inequalities in the society were eminent with much exploitation of the females. Thus the imbalances and disparities which are still distinctive in the currently world’s community are the traces of scalds which were inflicted by our forefathers. Variations on behavior and other inherent characters of the males and females in the communities of the Latin America are conspicuous features not only to the Latin America but to the other communities within the United States (Viveros, 2001). Masculinity and femininity has been displayed in numerous ways in the Latin America. The intimacy of power and sexuality is like nut and bolt. Since the creation of human nature, they have always fitted into each other forming a bound which is hard to break. Over the year, sexual powers have played major role in the maintenance of procreation process in the board. Sexual power on either side of femininity and masculinity has been of great value over the formation of couple families. Man and female partners have served as great firms; each housing within it very important commodities of pressure and live. Although the firm machines is fueled by spiritual means, the running the firms to produce an extraordinary products has always been threatened. While market places are set up for commodities exhibitions, jargonization  Ã‚   has taken place in the market place of the firm established and their commodities are neither valued nor can they enter the targeted marketed audiences. This was earlier perceived by Marx, hence, according to his elucidation of commodity, he pointed out that the process of change has got far reaching consequences. (Sallie, 2000) Family life in the Latin America has been dominated with capitalism, with men trying to harvesting unfairly on what they did not deserve. Repressive and coercive environments raged among many house in the Latin America couple compelling the females to submissive condition. For a number of decades, violence combined with oppression on the Latin America women was usual tolerance of the family life. Through well strategic and tactical ways, manipulations were legally and illegally set to capture the commodity. This conformed to the works of Bauman, whom in his work, he found that consumption was so much important to capitalist and therefore, during the early times, there were deficiency in erecting effective barrier to the consumer. Women were handicapped economically and socially making them vulnerable to challenges of men. Women situations have always been challenged to that of men by the variations of the availability of the commodities and consumers. Like a tourists in foreign land, the proportion of women to men has always been at an alarming level, paving the way for capitalistic men to maneuver their way from entangles of monogamy to polygamy and other kind of behavior misconducts. Bauman said â€Å" our desired are constantly recycled, reinvented and even invented in relation to new products, the endless pursuits for new, which fuses the thrill of invention with the status afforded innovations and newness in most of the world†. Through commodities rareness and scarcity in the Latin America, thrilling and tempting emotions painful punctures the lives of the women making them to surrender the demands of nature. This means natural hierarchy of human power was hence established from the sexuality and its connection to power was thus imbued from creation and continued in human life by inequality (Sueann, 1998). The liberation of the females from the bondages of sexual powers has taken a long struggle. Men have always dominated the females either under the influence of laws of under the ignorance and pride of man. Masculinity and femininity in the Latin America has raised a lot of heated debates over the recent decades due to its continued oppressive nature on both men and women. Though the laws of the Latin America have endeavored to perpetuate the moral thinking of most religious groups such as Christianity, Islamic and many others, the imposing of state power to prohibiting homosexually was impinging making Latin American females to tolerate the unwelcoming condition dominancy of the males. While lesbianism and gay remained prohibited marriage practices in the Latin American region, the citizens were enslaved to the adherence to heterosexual partnership, which was termed as bleach of freedom and liberty from colonial sovereignties. Under the disguise of moral conservations on reproduction, men were privileged to exercise political power which degenerated and deprived off the women freedom of leadership on politics generating a lot of criticism from human right activists. The expression of masculinity and femininity in the society has therefore been a battling matter between the societies, the religions other organization such human right bodies. However, the diversification of masculinity and femininity has solely been propelled through the authorities of the states governments. With the hurricanes and hailstorms of change in culture and traditions, scores of Europeans nations as well as numerous United States have been thrown to the seas of homosexuality with great acceptance. The desire for freed men and women has been the main argument for the easy penetration of the modernized homogeneity of masculinity and femininity. (Stern, 2001) Although there is now generalized acceptance in homosexuality in the globe, some states mostly in developed continents have remained adamant to the forces and pressures of the multitude move, hence, heterosexuality which has been dominating marriage and sex practices for many years is still conserved. According to the works of Sallie, it is observed that not only did most Latin American government prohibit the practices of homosexuality, but they have also abolished use of natural commodities as means of exploitation of fellow men. Thus, both homosexuals and commercial heterosexuals never escape the legal authorities, but mercilessly and without impunity faces the full charges of legal courts where they duly pay their debts. Masculinity and femininity has therefore been maintained in place despites the enormous forces to dissolve it by the authority and the communities themselves. The severity and weight of homosexuality has been varied from one Latin American state to another.   Like in the antiquity of the Israelites, prostitution and homosexuality are illegal in the face of Ecuador dwellers. Besides illegalization of these behaviors, homosexuals and prostitutes in the Ecuador risks their lives to physical abuse which consequently can lead to instant deprivation of live through public stoning or gun shooting. In Brazil, the Brazilians are much more lenient on the maintenance of the healthy community with diversified masculinities and femininities. There is feeling that these are unethical practices, hence Brazilians have outlawed them by just concealing them from the public innocent persons, while on the black points such as brothels far from schools, residential places and other hidden places are business as usual. Undoubtedly, this can be perceived as strategy which is employed to eliminate the paupers either economically of in color discriminatory means. (Peake, 1990) For many decades which have passed over, it was unthinkable for the Brazilian females to get involved into risky relationships as it is rampant in the today world. The moral compulsion together with the cultural laws sternly denied chances of loose living of both brazened girls and mothers in honor of virginity. Virginity among the young girls was so precious that, if it was lost in any undeserving ways, valuable returns were paid by the offenders for not less than five years. The search and confirmatory work of the virginity in the Brazilians advanced technology and knowledge in the field of medicine. At first, lack of enough knowledge about the anatomical sex examination led to numerous errors from inexperienced practitioners. This perhaps led to imposing of unfair punishments to the perpetrators of the legal laws concerning defilements and other related matters. According to Sales, this was an overwhelming opportunity in medical fields especially in Brazil where the government shouldered the task of deflowering examinations. In the eve of the praise of virginity as an honor to the female, Manoel and Maria Pereira appeared in the system of justices in search for honor of virginity. While to the Europeans, deflowering was like a norm, the Brazilians felt that it was an act of guiltiness which could only be compensated fully by marriage union. Hence, Peixoto said â€Å"†¦the scarcity of women makes them so precious, that upon loss of virginity, they promptly demand due repair by marriage†. (Buckley, 1999) The value that was attached to virginity and more to the hymen was unparalleled. Thus, from the ancients time when live was worthy living, most Latin Americas females honored their virginity to the extent that they would commit serious offences like murder rather than losing it. Like a jewel, virginity was preserved by most of females in the Brazilian community of Latinos. Due to the efforts to preserve the culturally valued jewel, men who trespassed in snatching it were heavily reprimanded in the justice systems.   This saw justice systems being filled with abnormal number of deflowering disputes. Surprisingly, the majority of the seeker for justices hailed from lower class women of the society, which lead to the inappropriate conclusion that they were only sexually preoccupied as result of race, ignorance, climates and the upbringing environment which lead them to have undeveloped moral and mental cultures. (Sallie, 2000) Like many other kinds of cultural practices, the culture on virginity was skewed giving men much opportunity on the freedom of sexual matters more than females. While the acts of deflowering were sternly against the laws of lands, the resolutions were quite simplified through the acceptance of the offender to make marriage with the deflowered female. The continuation of the culture and tradition with increased value attached to virginity, men obtained the status of polygamous marriage which was not only a symbol of wealthy, but this increased their honor in the community. The fact that females were getting married as second wives, thus, they accepted to live as concubine, which meant that men’s virginity was neither an issues nor was it considered as of any value during marriage time. Therefore, men had full freedom and liberty to engage to any number marriage relationships of the opposite sex, while females found themselves adhering to only single man’s relationship that made them to lose virginity. Sueann found it not satisfying on the Brazilian females due to the inequality on sexual issues which had merited men more than females. Though the culture on virginity in the Brazilian community was a way of enhancing diversity of masculinity and femininity among the people, however, the adverse effects were eminent. This was overt from the works of Sueann where he said â€Å"†¦.the persistent valorization of the female virginity and male aggressiveness,   coupled with a long standing tradition of premarital sexual relations, gave men an enormous advantage over their female partners†¦Ã¢â‚¬  There are numerous other noble men and women in different organization with similar opinions and who have got even greater powers to initiate change on them. When the issue dawn on jurists and legislators, the got receive it as a debatable material which ended without unanimous steps of resolutions. It only served as a stepping stone to those in the political sector which was use to broaden their politics drive leaving men the trod on the females as much   as the rules and laws permitted. The defense on the female rights and the definition of the roles and responsibilities are therefore been a rich ground of political expansion while this has left female survival at the fate of tormenting men. (Buckley, 1999) Although female rights and responsibilities have fallen into disarray in most of time, collection of efforts over time has made a break through of female liberation. The enlightenment of women through education and formation movement groups fought for the liberation of women. However, the overthrow of men is long process which is happening at a gradual pace. Beginning with the discrimination of men over punishments on offences which were committed in environment each of the two parties to receive equally penalties, men was more inflicted than the female partners (Green, 1999). Thus, the controversies which arose in the formation of protective rights emerged to overturn the justice to injustice in the men side, making him to be overburdened with penalties. Oppression and undermining of the man through unfair punishments on sexual matters diminished the meaning of family. Women began praising themselves as the heads of their families and defied to be submissive to their husbands. With the support to intimidate men from activists, government and other groups, men became symbolic in the family status; but women encountering men with disrespect and defending their daughter misconducts were issue that made them to be more conspicuous. As a consequence of men intimidation and the usually consensus of the practices to empower women, pride of cultures and tradition lost and men’s authority and manipulations over the women fainted away. However, there was diverged on the interactivity of men and women creating a new ways of social interaction both in power and social activities. (Sueann, 1998) The later years of the twentieth century are marked with great changes of social and power in all Latin American countries. The struggle to equalize men and women in power altered the social interaction and the equality was thus literally applied on the social and power. Men and women in the Latin America became exercising homosexually where men power was dissolved and equality granted to relationship. The scene although has now become a norm over the four corners of the globe, masculinity and femininity in the marriages ground are thus a passive biological terms (Green, 1999). The adoption of the modern lifestyles in the Latin America has changes the stability of most families. With the adoption of the homosexuality and the despise of the early notions of heterosexually, marriage in the new generation of the Latin America has turned to be contractual, which give both men and women the chance of terminating the marriage, a fact which is contrary to the old relationships where death and men like Manoel had the fate of marriage. However, this worsened the healthy families which were once established under the polygamous culture as more flexibility of men and women doubled, tripled and sometime went several unaccounted folds. Despite the presences of the pernicious ailments such as HIV/AIDS, lesbianism and gay has continued at rapid rates in the Brazilians community. The stigmatization of the HIV/AIDS with homosexuals and bisexuals made them to be vulnerable than their counterparts heterosexuals. Hence, sex preference was now becoming a factor of consideration in the job market. The homosexuals and bisexuals became to be discriminated in the employment sectors which gave another race for such patients. The effect of AIDS/HIV gave a new setting of the society by dissolving the boundaries of culture; however, the distinction which existed on role and work responsibilities was generalized. (Haggerty, 1985),

Review of Monsters Are Due On Maple Street :: essays research papers

?The Monsters Are Due On Maple Street? is a story about the paranoia of regular people. When the power and phone lines stop working on Maple Street, the residents become hostile. One boy puts an idea into their heads: that aliens impersonating humans have done it. This single thought catalysts and soon all of the neighbors are ready to hurt each other for answers. ?The Monsters Are Due On Maple Street? is a good play to see for all ages. The play is so relatable to viewers because the characters are the kind of people everyone knows. Steve Brand is the sensible character. He, alone, is the person who keeps level-headed throughout the entire ordeal. He addresses each development rationally and tries to keep everyone together. Charlie starts out as a friendly neighbor, but soon turns into the leader of the witch hunt. He even kills someone in his pursuit to find a scapegoat. He and the rest of the people on Maple Street become dangerously defensive once they?re willing to hurt another human being. The play teaches are very important lesson on being too cautious. When faced with a small problem like a power outage, the residents of a small town turn on each other. It shows how vulnerable and paranoid humans can be. At the end of the play, the narrator says that this is something that could happen among humans anywhere, it is not just confined to the ?Twilight Zone?. This is a departure from most other episodes, which end, ?only in the Twilight Zone?. This show, which broadcasted during the Cold War, is meant to demonstrate horrible things that could come from people being too paranoid and distrustful. This is a lesson which is still relevant today. Though the acting and dialogue seem to appeal to an older audience, young viewers can still enjoy and learn from this play. Prejudices, suspicion, and thoughtlessness are as prevalent as ever. For any problem, humans will look for a scapegoat. The War on Terror seems to bring similar feelings as those around during the Cold War. The lesson of trusting other people is as relevant now as it was in 1960, when the show originally aired.

Cultural and Ethical Issue of Globalization

Cross-Cultural Perspective: The Cultural and Ethical Issue of Globalization Many American companies that are outsourcing jobs to other countries create a problem in the economy of the Unites States and also creates a cultural effect in a global scale. To this day, The United States had lost millions of manufacturing jobs compared to two decades ago (Heffner, 2012). Americans can no longer compete to international manufacturers, which put the United States economy in doom.There are many factors involved as to why American companies’ decides to do its manufacturing business outside of the United States. The most obvious reason is the cost of labor. International wages from third world countries cost way less than wages in the United States. For example, manufacturers in China get paid 33 cents an hour (Heffner, 2012). As a company, the cost of doing business outside of the Unites States is way cheaper than hiring workers in the United States, which would cost more than 20 folds. In addition to wages, outsourcing jobs outside of the United States would also save companies cost for payroll taxes, benefits, and dealing with unions that are common in The United States. Moreover, doing business outside the United States increases a company’s capital because the cost of labor wages and manufacturing are less, yet the sales remain the same. The cost of real estate and plant cost is less than in the United States. Companies don’t have to worry about maintenance, property taxes, insurance, and cost for operations (Samuels, 2013).Although there are standards created by the International Labor Organizations when it comes to doing business in other countries, there are still fewer regulations set forth in other countries compared to regulations that are mandatory in doing business in the United States (Samuels, 2013). Companies will need to follow set rules and regulations in the United States, which means more paperwork, more taxes, worrying about worker s rights, providing benefits to workers, paid time offs, vacations, etc.More regulations means more cost and companies will definitely outsource jobs outside of the United States if it means saving them millions of dollars in cost. Another effects of outsourcing jobs outside of the United States are the cultural changes that are accompanied by doing business in other countries. It is no doubt that economy of third world countries are growing due to international trade that most foreign company brings in. But global business can change the way people live in a country. The ways of living are affected and so as the native language of the country.For example, The Philippines is considered one of the poorest countries in the world (The Poorest Countries in the World, 2013) and just a decade ago there were very few foreign countries that do businesses in the Philippines. Now, there are so many American companies like, IBM, Cisco, TeleTech, and Sprint that outsourced jobs to the Philippin es. Again, it is good for the growing economy of the Philippines, but at the same time it creates a culture shock in the country. It is now mandatory to take English courses in the Philippines, and most people are now speaking English language.Long-term effect could be a decline in the native cultures in the Philippines. One example of ethical problems that arises in global business can be seen in the case of the company Nike. More than a decade ago Nike was involved in a scandal that the company allegedly hired children in its workforce in Pakistan, but later it was concluded that it was indeed the truth. Children made the soccer balls that were manufactured in Pakistan by Nike Corporation. It was known that the children were paid 66 cents to spend all day stitching the soccer balls.Although there were laws in Pakistan about child labor, it was not fully enforced in the country (Azam, 1999). The problem was that records of birth were nearly impossible to obtain in countries like Pa kistan. Therefore, there are now records keeping of how old the workers were. The country is not like the United States was every born child is listed in a database. Nike Corporation admitted the allegations and apologized for employing workers that in the United States would be considered under aged workers (Boggan, 2001) .The company pledged not to hire under aged workers, â€Å"Nike said it would raise the minimum age for hiring workers at shoe factories to 18 and the minimum age for hiring workers at other plants to 16, in countries where it is common for 14-year-olds to hold such jobs. It will not require the dismissal of underage workers already in place† (Cushman, 1998). The company also â€Å"pledging to allow outsiders from labor and human rights groups to join the independent auditors who inspect the factories in Asia, nterviewing workers and assessing working conditions† (Cushman, 1998). Companies like Nike needs to consider the ethical responsibilities that is part of doing business in other countries. Not just because the country, like Pakistan, has laws that were not enforced properly in the country, it does not give any company the right to stray from the ethical responsibilities of companies to their employees. They should treat workers of other countries the same way that they would do if they were to employ workers in the United States.When companies do business with other countries they must be aware of the cultural and ethical perspective that can arise in doing such businesses. There are many factors that influence the companies’ decision on outsourcing jobs, but the social responsibility of a company must be equal across the board. It doesn’t mean that wages, benefits, or other factors will be the same for worker in the United States and in other countries, but the level of commitment to workers, respect, and treatment must be adherence to the ethical responsibilities of companies to their worker. References Az am, F. (1999, June). NIKE: Nike Shoes and Child Labor in Pakistan. Retrieved from http://www1. american. edu/ted/nike. htm Boggan, S. (2001, October 20). ‘We Blew It' Nike Admits to Mistakes Over Child Labor. Retrieved from http://www. commondreams. org/headlines01/1020-01. htm Cushman, J. (1998, May 13). INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS; Nike Pledges to End Child Labor And Apply U. S. Rules Abroad. Retrieved from http://www. nytimes. om/1998/05/13/business/international-business-nike-pledges-to-end-child-labor-and-apply-us-rules-abroad. html Heffner, T. (2012, May 15). American Manufacturing Can No Longer Compete. Retrieved from httphttp://economyincrisis. org/content/american-manufacturing-can-no-longer-compete Samuels, D. (2013). Pros & Cons of Outsourcing Manufacturing Jobs. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness. chron. com/pros-amp-cons-outsourcing-manufacturing-jobs-40320. html The Poorest Countries in the World. (2013). Retrieved from

Life Is Beautiful How Can Life Be Beautiful - 1319 Words

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It is clear that in the modern world, social media plays a pivotal role in communication amongst humanity. Social media serves a variety of purposes ranging from personal settings like keeping in touch with friends through Facebook and Twitter, as well as business environments through the use of LinkedIn. It has been proven in many scientific studies that among human’s basic needs is the necessity for a social connection with other human beings. Well, in the 21st century we have seen this need become very easy to attain through the introduction of social media. Social media has enabled humans to communicate in an advanced way just by using their fingertips. Although, social media is generally regarded as a positive device for humanity, it has sparked great controversy in its impact toward generating addictive and anti-social qualities within individuals. 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Health Contributions Various Populations

Question: Discuss about the Health Contributions for Various Populations. Answer: Introduction The end of the last century was a landmark in the history of modern societies for its health contributions to the various populations of the world, particularly the older people. In Australia, the enhanced health care was the greatest, causing a considerable decrease in their mortality. Though the health status is a continuum, the health care system is often criticized for its diverse policy formulations, life quality, and self reliance in older people. The problem partly lies in the laxity of families and communities, as well as the socioeconomic and health service delivery systems, in becoming supportive of older people. That means, the system is more inclined to the conditions in which the Australians are born, brought up, live, and toil, as well as the all encompassing social, political, and economic factors (AIHW, 2014). The situation makes it a necessity for the concerned, to identify the elements of old age- health services that are impacting on the Australian economy, policy, and the various components of health care. It is true that the health care approaches of Australia are initiated, considering the needs of its different population, by sex, age, health history, attitude and behaviors, geographies, socioeconomic backgrounds, and cultural traits. For the effective working of the Australian health system, there exists a web of governance and support engineering, that propel policies, law making, coordination, control and funding, facilitating the delivery of quality services. These mechanisms regulate the planning and implementation of service delivery, jointly shared by the governmental and non-governmental bodies (AIHW, 2014). In spite of all these systems that are said to be effective, the older people are still vulnerable to poor and inhumane treatment (Kollmorgen, 2016). Australia's health system for older people Currently, the Australians live healthier with a longer life span than the earlier generations. During the 1960s, the life expectancy for males and females was 74 and 67 years, respectively (AIHW, 2016). The recent mortality status shows that the females who were born in 2013 might live, till they reach the age of 84 (AIHW, 2016). Compared to this, the males have a life expectancy of 80 years. The increase in life expectancy is due to the fact that the Australians are getting more access to high-quality health services that provide greater living standards. According to the recent health data, the number of Australians aged 65 and above have tripled in the last fifty years, and has reached 3.4 million in the year 2014 (AIHW, 2016). Similarly, those people who were aged 85 and above recorded an astonishing ninefold increase in life expectancy during the same period (AIHW, 2016). The Australian Bureau of Statistics predicts that by 2064, the number of aged people of 65 and above will r each 9.6 million, and those aged 85 and above will become 1.9 million (AIHW, 2016). The accountability of these statistics is in mist for some, as there are allegations that many of the assessment made by the Australian Aged Care Quality Agency (AACQA) is far from the actual (Kollmorgen, 2016). However, the claim of Australia about improving the mortality rate among the older population must be seen with a confirmatory perspective, as the global health status of older people has not shown an encouraging trend in the past few years. It is apt to note here that the World Health Organization has already admitted in its recent report that the global life expectancy during the year 2015 was only 71.4 years (WHO, 2016). This affirms that Australias health status represents the positive outcomes of a competitive approach of the Australian health system, and that there would arise situations of increased illnesses, like arthritis, dementia, and the likes, and several impairments, including hearing loss, which are the direct accompaniments when people get older (AIHW, 2016). The accumulation of physical alterations and psychological changes that occur naturally over time in a person will increase the life expectancy, causing increased risk of aging-associated diseases (Disabled Worl d, 2016). In spite of these disadvantages, most of the Australians feel that their health is quite good, reducing the demand for extended aged care services (AIHW, 2016). Australian health service-An overview A countrys health system, with its complexities, work within a political and institutional framework, incorporating all public and private organizations and resources towards maintaining and restoring health, all the while reforming the operation of the health system (Kutzin Sparkes, 2016). As per the World Health Organization, a quality health system delivers quality health care to all people (AIHW, 2014). If the definition is taken as the guiding principle, Australias health service system conforms to the quality health service criteria, performing through multi level functional mechanisms, like public and private health care providers in multi settings, with relevant supporting and delivery systems. The key players in the system are the health care givers and the care receivers, consisting of medical practitioners, nurses, health care workers, hospitals, clinics, and governmental and non-governmental agencies. They are supposed to deliver multiple health services, such as public health services, hospital treatment, community centered preventive services, primary care, emergency health care, rehabilitation, and palliative care (AIHW, 2014). Yet, the aging population of Australia is more dependent on the predominant care and support from family and friends, who are mostly women (CPA, 2014). The health service structure, functioning, and reforms The public sector involves local, state, and territory governments, as well as the Australian government (AIHW, 2014). The private sector care providers are the pharmacies, private hospitals, and the medical practices. The public or government hospitals get their financial support from the state, territory, and the Government of Australia, and are controlled by the states and territorial governments. The private sector hospitals have their own management and infrastructure. Apart from imparting health services to the public, the Australian government and the allied bodies manage the funding and delivery of several other systems of health care. These include (i) the population health care programs, (ii) the community oriented health services, (iii) the researches in medical and health, (iv) the health services for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, (v) the mental health care, and (vi) the health infrastructure (AIHW, 2014). In spite of these elaborate health service provision s, there are several shortcomings, which keep the system away from addressing the needs of the older Australians. For instance, there are complaints that the staffing is inadequate and the care is substandard (even though the existing legislation forbids it), placing the aged care in peril (Kollmorgen, 2016). The people get their initial health care when they fall ill and meet the general practitioners (GP). After the initial diagnosis, the GPs may refer the patients to specialists or public hospitals to initiate better treatment options. Though these two steps seem to be the primary activities of the health care system, it involves several providers in various settings, aided by the legislative, regulatory, and funding mechanisms. The configuration of health services varies from one geographical location to another, but the common elements of health care do not change at all (AIHW, 2014), and yet boasting about an efficient funding system, trained and skilled workforce, decisions and policies, material provisions, quality medicines, and technologies to meet the requirement. The failure of the system is evidenced by the fact that the NSW parliamentary inquiry conducted last year, have located 93 NSW nursing homes, that were supposed to provide aged care facilities, lacking accreditation s tandards for more than three years. This means that most of the aging Australians were not having access to the basic needs of nutrition, hydration and safety, during the past few years. At the national level, there were 371 failures of this kind, in the same period, which is an eye opener to the grave situation, the aging people are facing in the health care sector (Kollmorgen, 2016). Therefore, the health service system needs to focus on universal health coverage, offering equity in service and quality, and removing the fear about financial hardship in using the services. Since people require both individual and public health services, private and public services are delivered to optimize quality outcome. The strengthening of the health system should be maintained through stringent policy instruments that underline universal health coverage reforms (Kutzin Sparkes, 2016). Such interventions must be based on cost effectiveness for older people, in order to focus on improving their health status. To facilitate this, new instruments need to be developed to cope with the declining health status, due to the emergent socioeconomic reasons, as the older people value the components of health and social dignity, in terms of quality of life (Luszcz, M.A., Milte, C.M., Walker, R., 2014). In Australia, the health sector is the States responsibility, even though the Commonwealth Government enjoys more power in raising revenue. This necessitates the States to depend on the financial transfers from the National government to meet the expenditure of the health care systems. The complex division of roles, power, and responsibilities cause the systems rely on public, as well as the private sectors. The system is funded mainly through taxation, and the governments contribution is 43% of the total expenditure, while other sources provide 25%. The Medicare covers public hospitals, pharmaceuticals, and medical services. The government provides subsidies for private health insurance protection (Commonwealth Fund, 2017). Types of health care The principal users of the Australian health system are the Australian citizens, foreigners visiting Australia, visa holders (temporary/permanent), and the asylum seekers. The health care sector consists of primary health care, secondary health care, and hospitals, where various health care professionals deliver primary health care services through different settings. Though a large part of the expenditure goes to primary health care (AIHW, 2014), the required transparency is wanting. The Productivity Commission's 2011 inquiry has pointed out this aspect in its report Caring for Older Australians, by stating that the funding models for nursing homes and their residents must be made more transparent and affordable for the aging people (Kollmorgen, 2016). Presently, the funding for primary health care includes the financial support to health organizations that give care services to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (Department of Health, 2016), like The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance Framework (HPF), for coordinating the health sector activities to derive better outcomes among the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians (Department of Health, 2016a). The Secondary care denotes the medical service rendered by a specialist/faculty, on a referral from the primary care physicians (Nicholson, 2012). To address the health care needs of the aging people, the government is all set to implement a new funding model in February 2017, in which the allocations will be made straight to them instead of channelling it through the service providers. This will enable older people to avail better care than before (The Commonwealth Fund, 2016). Health care reforms The health care system of Australia is successful in extending quality health at a reasonable cost, and by its virtue the Australians now enjoy a greater life expectancy with a long healthy life. This performance was derived out of the intermingling of the public and private services, and sharing the responsibilities between the national and state governments. Although this system supported the primary care effectively, there was a lack of proper coordination in managing care (Hall, 2015). The factors that steer health reforms are complex, multidimensional, and interlinked.Australias population is growing and will live longer than before, increasing health costs and sustainability threats. Such a population, with sedentary lifestyles, and low health literacy and high consumer expectations need advanced medical technology (Bartlett, C., Butler, S., Haines, L., 2016). The compelling need has already forced the government to give priority in committing reforms in the aged care system t hat is supporting the older Australians, while making it more affordable and sustainable (DOH, 2017a). The significance of the National Health Reform Agreement of 2011, arise in this context, as it is the most important reform after Medicare in 1984. The reform process was started in 2007 under the Kevin Rudd Labor Government. At that time there were hardships in public hospitals, such as long waiting for elective surgery, overcrowding in emergency departments, and safety and quality issues. The Federal government, states and territories blamed each other on insufficient funding and fund management. As a result, the new Government instituted the National Health and Hospitals Reform Commission to formulate reforms in the health sector. The Commissions Final Report, was subjected to various levels of negotiations and changes in the Commissions recommendations (Commonwealth Fund, 2017a). The revised funding package of the government responds to several issues that were hovering over the health sector, by making it more advantageous to Aged Care(DOH, 2017a). The Commissions report contained 123recommendations (Bennett, 2013). The key principles of the reform are: The local decision making: It pertains to the establishment of Local Health Networks that are responsible for regulating the public hospitals, as well as the State health programs. The Local Health Networks are entitled to receive Commonwealth funding directly, and are made responsible for the managing and monitoring of own budgets and delivery of services, thereby transferring the States responsibility of direct involvement in the working of public hospitals to overseeing and managing them. Activity based funding (ABF): This establishes a national system for classifying coding scheme to ensure the steady collection of national data and fixing an efficient price, suggested by the Independent Hospital Pricing Authority (IHPA). The Authority has the responsibility for determining the nationally efficient price. The ABF came into force on July 1st of 2012 catering the needs of acute inpatients, hospital outpatient services, and emergency department services. In order to address mental health and sub acute health care, the ABF was made applicable on 1st July, 2013. The Agreement supports block funding for facilities and services to areas where ABF is not feasible, and allows to continue joint funding of national and states governments for running public hospitals (Commonwealth Fund, 2017) Public performance reporting: Under the provisions of this reform the National Health Performance Authority (NHPA) is constituted to watch the functioning of public hospitals, by means of thewebsite: myhospitals. The NHPA will furnish a series of reports on the functioning of primary care to maintain national consistency. The newly formed 61 Medicare Locals are geographically based, having the responsibility of managing all activities of primary care, including identification of service gaps and developing strategies to fill the gaps, and integrating and coordinating the services. The main aim of the reforms is the restructuring and innovating the public hospital system, with enhanced facilities for preventive activities (Commonwealth Fund, 2017). The reform will bring together all of the key players of the health systems to ensure a high quality delivery of health care to patients, incorporating new technologies. It will also enable the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and rem ote communities who are isolated from the rest of the Australian society to access health care easily (Perkovic, 2015). The models of health care The adoption of new health care models, like walk-in centers, provides high quality care quickly, for managing minor illnesses and injuries. It enhances the access to public health care in the ACT community, adding value to health promotion (ACT Health, 2015). Other models of care are the personally controlled electronic health (e-health) records (Department of Health 2016b) and tele-health services. The tele-health service utilizes the latest communication technologies, like video conferencing for transferring health information and delivering health services for older people living in remote settings (Department of Health, 2015). DiversityConceptualModel Though the majority of older Australians is enjoying quality in life, the subgroups do not have adequate health. People, like Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders have a shorter life expectancy of 12 years than the other Australians. The low level literacy affects their interaction with the health care system, resulting in increased physical and mental health issues in older people, especially the lesbians, gay, and Transgenders, contributing severe health disparities. Therefore, the National Health and Hospitals Reform Commission (2009) has insisted for more reforms in the aged care system, to cope with the demands of the older population in diverse settings. Since the government has adopted diversity as a policy for the reforms in the aged care sector, the health care providers and institutions are incorporating diversity in aged care delivery. Accordingly, a Diversity Conceptual Model was developed for employing it in the aged care sector, for linking diversity as an advantage, while identifying the negative elements in health care delivery. TheDiversityConceptualModel was developed with the help of literature review, questionnaire, target groups, and stakeholder interviews, and got approved by the Clinical Governance Committee for implementation. The participants in this model included external service providers from CALD backgrounds, Indigenous Australians, older people with dementia, and LGBTI people. Additionally, people with dementia and Indigenous Australians, along with a national service provider working in residential aged care facilities. During its development phase, though a detailed search in various literature was made, it could not evolve any tool for supporting the aged care sector. Therefore, the Model included twelve diversity characteristics shared by aging people, according to the special needs groups that are identified in the Aged Care Act 1997, as well as the human rights based approach for ageing and health. The Diversity Conceptual Model considered a diversity approach for addressing all sorts of differences and disadvantages, because the exiting tool, like the Australian Bureau of Statistics Socio?Economic Indexes for Areas, was not designed for the aged care. Moreover, many of the aged care service providers are extending service to the diverse older people, with a policy of caring equally and same, which will not be enough, as it only increase disparities in health care. So, the Model focused more on equity in policy, access, quality of care, sharing, and organizational participation. After incorporating all the relevant information, five themes were worked out for constructing the Diversity Conceptual Model. These themes were: (1) Reason for referral (2) Cultural identity with diversity characteristics (3) Diversity characteristics that are shared in common by the aged people (4) Quality improvements for increased equity, and (5) Application of client narratives for using in the Div ersity Conceptual Model. TheModel thus developed, acted as a visual tool, comprising of several elements that are centered on diversity characteristics. With this model, the gains and loss are identified effectively, in helping the aged people to achieve greater benefits. It also provided consistent quality improvement provisions, along with enhanced equity sharing for them (Michael, 2016). Health Care Policy The health system in Australia is an amalgamation of government funding and private financial resources with a vague jurisdictional line. The system has a policy involving multiple providers and regulatory instruments, and is known to possess a mixed system (Biggs, 2013). It is a mixture of federal and state government responsibilities and funding, and the service delivered through both public and private sectors. The states, territories, and the national government jointly fund the public hospitals, where the states act as hospital system managers. The federal government will have the lead responsibility of primary health care. Private hospitals work as per the requirement of the federal and state governments. The states have the right to the licensing of private hospitals, while the private health insurance is controlled by the national government (OECD, 2015). The key elements of the policy are: (i) integrating health care at governmental level, (ii) improving the information transfer between the health care services, (iii) promoting medical home type primary health, (iv) improving the quality of health care and preventive health care (v) public reporting of health care variation and raising awareness, (vi) informing the practitioners regarding their practice patterns, (vii) improving the shared decisions among patients, (viii) supporting the practitioners by clinical guidelines and decision tools, and (ix) implementing the complementary payment system (OECD, 2015). The primary health care integration at macro levels have strengths and weaknesses, along with weaknesses and opportunities. The integration policies supporting the Australian health reforms call for stakeholders cooperation, consistency in performance, and target oriented objectives. The interdependency of the national government, and the State and Territory governments with the shared policies, promote opportunities for building efficiency, through sharing resources and patients care perception. The difference in the health care approaches of the multiple level governments has potential to reflect the disparities in the care delivered and the distance in accessing the care by the different populations (Brown, L., Bywood P Oliver-Baxter J, 2013). The Australian Government is supporting all forms of continuous and respite residential aged care, determined by needs assessment (The Commonwealth Fund, 2016). The impact of providing health service to older people The health service system in Australia provides residential aged care, as well as community-based aged care for the older population. Initially, the older people enter the community-based care, and then to permanent residential care. The residential aged care includes permanent care, as well as respite care. The community based aged care is divided into two, namely, the Commonwealth Home Support Program (CHSP) and the Home Care Packages Program (HCPP). The first one provides entry level support services and helps the older people to live independently at home. The second one extends four levels of support. In addition to these are several other packages, like the Transition Care Program, the Veteran's Home Care Program, and the Multi Purpose Services Program, for special groups that live in mixed settings. In spite of all these, a good part of the caring for aged people in the community rests on informal caregivers, such as family, friends, and neighbors who are unpaid, and render se rvice on emotional grounds (AIHW, 2017a). The available statistics show that 7.8% of the people aged 65 and above were availing residential aged care, and 2.4% of people aged 65 and above received home care during 201314. Additionally, 263,788 subsidized operational settings were made available to them the same year (AIHW, 2017a). The revelation is an eye opener to the strain on the health care system, due to the burden of old age care. The increasing number of older people demands more workload from the health care providers and caregivers. Moreover, the reduced pay and low level of employment have transformed aged care an unwanted profession for the workforce. Many caregivers feel that age care services is not at all promising to stick with, as a career. The situation is an indicator of the problems the old aged people and the health care system face (Berechee, 2013). Various studies on the health status of the older people and their reduced mortality rate have predicted that by 2050, the number of aged people who are between 65 and 84 will double and that the people who are 85 and above will increase to 1.8 million from the present 0.4 million (Private Healthcare Australia, 2016). That means the real health expenditure for the aged people who are over 65 would increase seven times and the people above 85 will increase 12 times. These rises in life expectancy will create a crisis in the health care sector, demanding more and more medical services, pharmaceuticals, newer technologies, and drugs. Moreover, the ageing population and associated health issues will impose unprecedented economic and social constraints on the communitys socioeconomic settings. Therefore, it is essential to develop new strategies to cope with such situations (Private Healthcare Australia, 2016). Aged care spending As per the health statistics 201112, the direct expenditure incurred by the Government of Australia on ageing care programs and services was $12.9 billion, excluding the expenditure incurred by the government and statutory bodies in other areas of health care. It is estimated that the residential aged care alone incurred an expenditure of $9 billion, while $3 billion was spent on community care (AIHW, 2017b). The Intergenerational Report 2015 underlines that the longer life expectancy coupled with the rise in health costs, will crumble the budget allocations, threatening the health service sustainability. The rise in the rate of aging people, passive lifestyles, poor level health literacy, increased consumer expectations, and higher incidents of chronic diseases will strain the whole system of health care (Bartlett, C., Butler, S., Haines, L., 2016). Though population ageing is a global phenomenon, it will create major challenges along with opportunities that affects the health econ omics, as well as geriatrics (Couzner, L., Crotty, Laver, K., , Ratcliffe, J., 2012). Conclusion The Australian health care system provides quality health care to the Austalians, and as a result, the life expectancy of older people increased considerably. People live healthier with a longer life span than the previous generations. This increase shows that the older Australians are getting more access to high-quality health services that provide greater living standards. However, such reduction in mortality rates poses long standing challenges to the future economy and health care system, as it would invite more fund allocation and resources for meeting the demand of quality health care for the older people. The health care reforms were intended to meet such contingencies, but it is insufficient to address the future health care demands. However, a systemic change and positive collaboration between the Commonwealth government, and the governments of the States and territories could address the problem efficiently. Though the primary health care integration at macro levels have st rengths and weaknesses, it generates tremendous opportunities in building up healthcare efficiency of the older people in the long term, through sharing resources with a vision for the future. References ACT Health. (2015). Walk-in Centre: History. Model of Care. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://ihic.improve.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/A7_KEUN.pdf AIHW. (2014). Australias health series no. 14. Cat. no. AUS 178. Government of Australia, Canberra. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=60129547764 AIHW. (2016). Ageing. Government of Australia. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.aihw.gov.au/ageing/ AIHW. (2017a). Aged care. Government of Australia. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.aihw.gov.au/aged-care/ AIHW. (2017b). Aged Care in Australia. Government of Australia. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.aihw.gov.au/aged-care/residential-and-community-2011-12/aged-care-in-australia/ Bartlett, C., Butler, S., Haines, L. (2016). Reimagining health reform in Australia: Taking a systems approach to health and wellness. Strategy PWC. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.strategyand.pwc.com/reports/health-reform-australia Bennett, C. C. (2013). Are we there yet? A journey of health reform in Australia. Med J Aust; 199 (4): 251-255. doi: 10.5694/mja13.10839. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2013/199/4/are-we-there-yet-journey-health-reform-australia Berechee, C. (2013). Australias ageing population at the centre of political discussions. Reportage. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.reportageonline.com/2013/08/australia%E2%80%99s-ageing-population-to-impact-health-care-and-employment/ Biggs, A. (2013). Health in Australia: a quick guide. Parliament of Australia. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1314/QG/HealthAust CPA. (2014). The care and support of older people an international perspective. Centre for Policy on Ageing.Retrieved 24 January, 2017 from https://www.ageuk.org.uk/Documents/EN-GB/For-professionals/Research/CPA-International_care_and_support_of_older_people.pdf?dtrk=true Commonwealth Fund. (2017). Health Care System and Health Policy in Australia. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.commonwealthfund.org/grants-and-fellowships/fellowships/australian-american-health-policy-fellowship/health-care-system-and-health-policy-in-australia Commonwealth Fund. (2017a). Recent Reforms in the Australian Health System. Retrieved January 5, 2017 from https://www.commonwealthfund.org/grants-and-fellowships/fellowships/australian-american-health-policy-fellowship/recent-reforms-in-the-australian-health-system Department of Health. (2015). 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